eclipse Eclipses, occultations, and transits of satellites and other objectsastronomy

These phenomena as they apply to the natural satellites of planets are conveniently illustrated by the four largest (Galilean) satellites of Jupiter, whose eclipses provide a frequently occurring and fascinating spectacle to the telescopic observer. The three innermost moons (Io, Europa, and Ganymede) disappear into the shadow of Jupiter at each revolution, though the fourth (Callisto) is not eclipsed every time. Because of the sizable dimensions of these bodies, some minutes elapse between first contact with the shadow and totality. The orbits of the Galilean moons lie nearly in the same plane as Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun, and, at practically every revolution of each moon, the following four eclipse phenomena take place: (1) eclipse of the moon when it passes through Jupiter’s shadow, (2) occultation of the moon when it disappears behind the planet, as seen from Earth, (3) transit of the moon across the disk of Jupiter, and (4) transit of the shadow of the moon across the planet’s disk.

The figure illustrates these phenomena; it shows Jupiter and the orbit of one of its large moons, the direction of the sunlight illuminating the system, and the direction toward Earth, from where the observation is made. When the moon arrives at position S₁ of its orbit, it enters Jupiter’s shadow (eclipse) and vanishes. At position S₂ it comes out of the shadow, but to the terrestrial observer it is now hidden behind the planet (occultation) until at position S₃ it reappears at the limb. When the moon reaches position S₄, its shadow falls on Jupiter, causing a small dark spot on its surface. Seen from Earth, the moon is to the left of Jupiter approaching Jupiter’s limb at the time that its shadow spot passes across the planet’s disk (transit of shadow). At position S₅ the moon starts to pass in front of the planet (transit of moon), following its shadow spot. Both Jupiter and the moon must have their illuminated sides facing Earth. They differ little in total surface brightness; near the limb the moon is somewhat brighter than the planet’s surface on which it appears projected, but near the middle of the disk it is hardly distinguishable. At position S₆ the shadow leaves the planet, and at position S₇ the moon emerges at the limb.

Historically, the eclipses of Jupiter’s Galilean moons are important, for they provided one of the earliest proofs of the finite speed of light. It is possible to calculate with considerable precision the times of disappearance and reappearance of a moon undergoing eclipse. In 1676 the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer, upon noting discrepancies between the observed and calculated times of such eclipses, correctly explained them as being due to the difference in the travel time of light when Earth is nearest to Jupiter or farther away from it.

An event related to the occultation of a planet’s moons is the occultation of a space probe by a planet, as observed from Earth. During the beginning and the end of such occultations, radio signals sent out by the spacecraft pass through the planet’s atmosphere and travel to Earth. When the signals are received and analyzed, they can provide information about atmospheric density, temperature, and composition. (For examples of the application of this technique, see Saturn: The atmosphere; Uranus: The atmosphere.)