electric motor Direct-current commutator motors

An elementary form of a direct-current (DC) motor is shown in Figure 6 of the article on electric generator. A stationary magnetic field is produced across the rotor by poles on the stator. These poles may be encircled by field coils carrying direct current, or they may contain permanent magnets. The rotor or armature consists of an iron core with a coil accommodated in slots. The ends of the coil are connected to the bars of a commutator switch mounted on the rotor shaft. Stationary graphite brushes lead to external terminals.

Suppose a direct-current supply is connected to the armature terminals such that a current enters at the positive terminal. This current interacts with the magnetic flux to produce a counterclockwise torque, which in turn accelerates the rotor. When the rotor has turned about 120°, the connection from the supply to the armature coil is reversed by the commutator. The new direction of the current in the armature coil is such as to continue to produce counterclockwise torque while the coil is under the pole. A voltage proportional to the speed is generated in the armature coil. While this coil voltage is alternating, the commutator action produces a unidirectional voltage at the motor terminals with the polarity shown. The electrical input will be the product of this terminal voltage and the input current. The mechanical output power will be the product of the rotor torque and speed.

In a practical DC motor, the armature winding consists of a number of coils in slots, each spanning 1/p of the rotor periphery for p poles. In small motors the number of coils may be as low as six, while in large motors it may be as large as 300. The coils are all connected in series, and each junction is connected to a commutator bar. All coils under the poles contribute to torque production.

A typical small DC motor, such as those used in automobile fans, contains two poles made of ferrite permanent-magnet material. When higher torque is required, as, for example, in the starter motor of an automobile, stronger magnets such as neodymium-iron-boron may be employed. When the terminals of this motor are connected to a constant direct-voltage source, such as a battery, the initial current will be limited only by the resistance of the armature winding and the brushes. The torque produced by the interaction of this current with the field accelerates the rotor. A voltage is generated in the winding proportional to the speed. This voltage opposes that of the source, thus reducing the current and the torque. With no mechanical load, the generated voltage will rise to a value nearly equal to the source voltage, allowing just enough current to provide for friction torque. Application of a load torque slows down the rotor, decreasing the generated voltage, increasing the current, and producing torque to match the load torque.

With larger motors, the armature winding resistance is too low to limit the current on starting to a value that can be switched by the commutator. These motors are normally started with a resistance connected in series to the armature supply. This resistance is usually decreased in stages as the speed increases.

Permanent-magnet commutator motors have no provision for speed control when attached to a constant-voltage supply. If speed adjustment is desired, the permanent-magnet field can be replaced by iron poles with field coils. These coils can be provided with current from the same supply as for the armature or from a separate supply. A variable series resistor can be used to adjust the field current. With maximum field current and thus maximum magnetic flux, the generated voltage will equal the supply voltage at a minimum value of no-load speed. If the field current is reduced, the motor will have to rotate faster through the reduced flux to generate the same voltage and the no-load speed will be increased. For a given rated armature current, the available torque will be reduced because of the reduced flux. The motor, however, will be able to provide the same mechanical power at a higher speed and lower torque.

Commutator motors with adjustable field current are known as shunt motors, or separately excited motors. Normally, the available speed range is less than 2 to 1, but special motors can provide a speed range of up to 10 to 1.

Another form of commutator motor is the series motor in which the field coils, with relatively few turns, carry the same current as does the armature. With a high value of current, the flux is high, making the torque high and the speed low. As the current is reduced, the torque is reduced and the speed increases. In the past, such motors were widely used in electric transportation vehicles, such as subway trains and fork-lift trucks.

Large DC motors usually have four or more poles to reduce the thickness of the required iron in the stator yoke and to reduce the length of the end connections on the armature coils. These motors may also have additional small poles, or interpoles, placed between the main poles and have coils carrying the supply current. These poles are placed so as to generate a small voltage in each armature coil as it is shorted out by the commutator. This assists the quick reversal of current in the coil and prevents commutator sparking.

DC commutator motors have been extensively used in steel mills, paper mills, robots, and machine tools where accurate control of speed or speed reversal, or both, are required. The field is supplied from a separate voltage source, usually with constant field current, or from permanent magnets. The armature is supplied from a source of controllable voltage. The speed is then approximately proportional to the source voltage. Reversal of the armature supply voltage at a controlled rate reverses the motor.