the physical substance of the human organism, composed of living cells and extracellular materials and organized into tissues, organs, and systems.
Human anatomy and physiology are treated in many different articles. For detailed coverage of the body’s biochemical constituents, see protein; carbohydrate; lipid; nucleic acid; vitamin; and hormone. For information on the structure and function of the cells that constitute the body, see cell. For detailed discussions of specific tissues, organs, and systems, see human blood; cardiovascular system; digestive system, human; endocrine system, human; renal system; skin; muscle; nervous system; reproductive system, human; respiration, human; sensory reception, human; skeletal system, human. For a description of how the body develops, from conception through old age, see aging; growth; human embryology; human development.
Many entries describe the body’s major structures. For example, see abdominal cavity; adrenal gland; aorta; bone; brain; ear; eye; heart; kidney; large intestine; lung; nose; ovary; pancreas; pituitary gland; small intestine; spinal cord; spleen; stomach; testis; thymus; thyroid gland; tooth; uterus; vertebral column.
Human beings are, of course, animals—more particularly, members of the order Mammalia in the subphylum Vertebrata of the phylum Chordata. Like all chordates, the human animal has a bilaterally symmetrical body that is characterized at some point during its development by a dorsal supporting rod (the notochord), gill slits in the region of the pharynx, and a hollow dorsal nerve cord. Of these features, the first two are present only during the embryonic stage in the human; the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column, and the pharyngeal gill slits are lost completely. The dorsal nerve cord is the spinal cord in human beings; it remains throughout life.
Characteristic of the vertebrate form, the human body has an internal skeleton that includes a backbone of vertebrae. Typical of mammalian structure, the human body shows such characteristics as hair, mammary glands, and highly developed sense organs.
Beyond these similarities, however, lie some profound differences. Among the mammals, only human beings have a predominantly two-legged (bipedal) posture, a fact that has greatly modified the general mammalian body plan. (Even the kangaroo, which hops on two legs when moving rapidly, walks on four legs and uses its tail as a “third leg” when standing.) Moreover, the human brain, particularly that part called the neocortex, is far and away the most highly developed in the animal kingdom. As intelligent as are many other mammals—such as chimpanzees and dolphins—none have achieved the intellectual status of the human species.
Chemically, the human body consists mainly of water and of organic compounds—i.e., lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Water is found in the extracellular fluids of the body (the blood plasma, the lymph, and the interstitial fluid) and within the cells themselves. It serves as a solvent without which the chemistry of life could not take place. The human body is about 60 percent water by weight.
Lipids—chiefly fats, phospholipids, and steroids—are major structural components of the human body. Fats provide an energy reserve for the body, and fat pads also serve as insulation and shock absorbers. Phospholipids and the steroid compound cholesterol are major components of the membrane that surrounds each cell.
Proteins also serve as a major structural component of the body. Like lipids, proteins are an important constituent of the cell membrane. In addition, such extracellular materials as hair and nails are composed of protein. So also is collagen, the fibrous, elastic material that makes up much of the body’s skin, bones, tendons, and ligaments. Proteins also perform numerous functional roles in the body. Particularly important are those cellular proteins called enzymes, which catalyze the chemical reactions necessary for life.
Carbohydrates are present in the human body largely as fuels, either as simple sugars circulating through the bloodstream or as glycogen, a storage compound found in the liver and the muscles. Small amounts of carbohydrates also occur in cell membranes, but, in contrast to plants and many invertebrate animals, humans have little structural carbohydrate in their bodies.
Nucleic acids make up the genetic materials of the body. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the body’s hereditary master code, the instructions according to which each cell operates. It is DNA, passed from parents to offspring, that dictates the inherited characteristics of each human being. Ribonucleic acid (RNA), of which there are several types, helps carry out the instructions encoded in the DNA.
Along with water and organic compounds, the body’s constituents include various inorganic minerals. Chief among these are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, and iron. Calcium and phosphorus, combined as calcium-phosphate crystals, form a large part of the body’s bones. Calcium is also present as ions in the blood and interstitial fluid, as is sodium. Ions of phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium, on the other hand, are abundant within the intercellular fluid. All of these ions play vital roles in the body’s metabolic processes. Iron is present mainly as part of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment of the red blood cells. Other mineral constituents of the body, found in minute but necessary concentrations, include cobalt, copper, iodine, manganese, and zinc.
In-the-brains-of-primates-such-as-humans-the-cerebrumIn the brains of primates such as humans, the cerebrum has grown into the largest region of the …[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
The-mandibleThe mandible (lower jawbone).[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
Sagittal-view-of-the-human-nasal-cavitySagittal view of the human nasal cavity.[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
Sagittal-section-of-the-pharynxSagittal section of the pharynx.[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
Lateral-and-frontal-views-of-the-human-skull(Left) Lateral and (right) frontal views of the human skull.[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
Inferior-view-of-the-human-skullInferior view of the human skull.[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
There-are-approximately-one-million-nephrons-in-each-kidney-thatThere are approximately one million nephrons in each kidney that filter water and substances out of …[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
Cross-section-of-the-right-kidney-showing-the-major-bloodCross section of the right kidney showing the major blood vessels.[Credits : Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
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