plasma Solar-terrestrial formsstate of matter

The visible region of the Sun is the photosphere (see Table), with its radiation being about the same as the continuum radiation from a 5,800 K blackbody. Lying above the photosphere is the chromosphere, which is observed by the emission of line radiation from various atoms and ions. Outside the chromosphere, the corona expands into the ever-blowing solar wind (see below), which on passing through the planetary system eventually encounters the interstellar medium. The corona can be seen in spectacular fashion when the Moon eclipses the bright photosphere. During the times in which sunspots are greatest in number (called the sunspot maximum), the corona is very extended and the solar wind is fierce. Sunspot activity waxes and wanes with roughly an 11-year cycle. During the mid-1600s and early 1700s, sunspots virtually disappeared for a period known as the Maunder minimum. This time coincided with the Little Ice Age in Europe, and much conjecture has arisen about the possible effect of sunspots on climate. Periodic variations similar to that of sunspots have been observed in tree rings and lake-bed sedimentation. If real, such an effect is important because it implies that the Earth’s climate is fragile.

In 1958 the American astrophysicist Eugene Parker showed that the equations describing the flow of plasma in the Sun’s gravitational field had one solution that allowed the gas to become supersonic and to escape the Sun’s pull. The solution was much like the description of a rocket nozzle in which the constriction in the flow is analogous to the effect of gravity. Parker predicted the Sun’s atmosphere would behave just as this particular solar-wind solution predicts rather than according to the solar-breeze solutions suggested by others. The interplanetary satellite probes of the 1960s proved his solution to be correct.