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  • Independent Television News (British government agency)
    ...advertising; these tasks were performed by commercial program companies. These latter, organized on a regional basis, supplied all the material broadcast except for news, for which a separate group, Independent Television News, was created; it was jointly owned and financed by the program companies. TV-am originated in 1983 and operated outside the system with an early morning breakfast-show......
  • Independent, The (British newspaper)
    ...advertising; these tasks were performed by commercial program companies. These latter, organized on a regional basis, supplied all the material broadcast except for news, for which a separate group, Independent Television News, was created; it was jointly owned and financed by the program companies. TV-am originated in 1983 and operated outside the system with an early morning breakfast-show......
  • Independent Theatre Club (British company)
    ...playwright Henrik Ibsen was helping to produce a new genre of serious “problem plays,” such as Pinero’s The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893). J.T. Grein founded the Independent Theatre in 1891 to foster such work and staged there the first plays of George Bernard Shaw and translations of Ibsen....
  • independent variable (mathematics)
    ...Lie. Lie, and independently Wilhelm Killing in Germany, came to suspect that the systems of partial differential operators they were studying came in a limited variety of types. Once the number of independent variables was specified (which fixed the dimension of the system), a large class of examples, including many of considerable geometric significance, seemed to fall into a small number of.....
  • independent-particle model (physics)
    Nuclear models can be classified into two main groups. In those of the first group, called independent-particle models, the main assumption is that little or no interaction occurs between the individual particles that constitute nuclei; each proton and neutron moves in its own orbit and behaves as if the other nuclear particles were passive participants. The shell nuclear model (q.v.)......
  • independent-suspension system (vehicles)
    Articulated rear axles offer individual wheel suspension at the rear as well as the front. Individual rear suspension not only eliminates the heavy rear axle housing but also permits lowered bodies with no floor humps, because the transmission and differential gears can be combined in a housing mounted on a rear cross member moving with the body under suspension-spring action. In some......
  • Independents (religion)
    any of the English Christians in the 16th and 17th centuries who wished to separate from the Church of England and form independent local churches. They were eventually called Congregationalists. Separatists were most influential politically in England during the time of the Commonwealth (1649–60) under Oliver Cromwell, the lord protector, who was himse...
  • Independents, Union of (political party, Austria)
    The populist Freedom Party of Austria (Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs; FPÖ), sometimes referred to as the Liberal Party, was founded in 1955 as a successor to the League of Independents. It is progressive and anticollectivist in character and stands for moderate social reform, participation of workers in management, and European unity. In 2005 disputes between moderates and......
  • Indes, Compagnie des (French trading company)
    any of the French trading companies established in the 17th and 18th centuries to oversee French commerce with India, eastern Africa, and other territories of the Indian Ocean and the East Indies....
  • Indes, Compagnie Française des (French trading company)
    any of the French trading companies established in the 17th and 18th centuries to oversee French commerce with India, eastern Africa, and other territories of the Indian Ocean and the East Indies....
  • Indes galantes, Les (work by Rameau)
    ...these theatres in 1725 inspired the composition of one of his best and most celebrated pieces, Les Sauvages, later used in his opéra ballet Les Indes galantes (first performed 1735). The following year, at the age of 42, he married a 19-year-old singer, who was to appear in several of his operas and who was to bear him four......
  • Indes Occidentales
    crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north. From the peninsula of Florida on the mainland of the United States, the islands stretch 1,200 miles (1,900 km)...
  • Indes Orientales, Compagnie Française des (French trading company)
    any of the French trading companies established in the 17th and 18th centuries to oversee French commerce with India, eastern Africa, and other territories of the Indian Ocean and the East Indies....
  • indeterminacy (literature)
    in literature, the multiplicity of possible interpretations of given textual elements. The term was given its literary meaning by deconstruction theorists. Indeterminacy is similar to ambiguity as described by the New Critics, but it is applied by its practitioners not only to literature but also to the interpretation of texts....
  • indeterminacy principle (physics)
    statement, articulated (1927) by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg, that the position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly, at the same time, even in theory. The very concepts of exact position and exact velocity together, in fact, have no meaning in nature....
  • indeterminate dyad (philosophy)
    ...Plato inaccurately, Speusippus adopted the Platonic doctrine asserting the timeless derivation of all reality from two opposite principles, often called “the One” and “the indeterminate dyad,” terms meant to explain the presence of both unity and multiplicity in the universe. His colleagues, however, viewed “the One” and “the dyad” as......
  • indeterminate growth (biology)
    Continuous growth of hair (indeterminate), as seen on the heads of humans, is rare among mammals. Hairs with determinate growth are subject to wear and must be replaced periodically—a process termed molt. The first coat of a young mammal is referred to as the juvenal pelage, which typically is of fine texture like......
  • indeterminate inflorescence (plant anatomy)
    In indeterminate inflorescences, the youngest flowers are at the top of an elongated axis or on the centre of a truncated axis. An indeterminate inflorescence may be a raceme, panicle, spike, catkin, corymb, umbel, spadix, or head....
  • indeterminate sentence (law)
    in law, term of imprisonment with no definite duration within a prescribed maximum. Eligibility for parole is determined by the parole authority. In this respect, an indeterminate sentence differs from a definite one in that statutes prescribing the latter usually provide for parole eligibility after a specified fraction of the full term—in most countries, from one-half to two-thirds of th...
  • indeterminism (philosophy)
    Indeterminism, on the other hand, though not denying the influence of behavioral patterns and certain extrinsic forces on human actions, insists on the reality of free choice. Exponents of determinism strive to defend their theory as compatible with moral responsibility by saying, for example, that evil results of certain actions can be foreseen, and this in itself imposes moral responsibility......
  • indeterminism
    (aleatory from Latin alea, “dice”), 20th-century music in which chance or indeterminate elements are left for the performer to realize. The term is a loose one, describing compositions with strictly demarcated areas for improvisation according to specific directions and also unstructured pieces consisting of vague directives, such as “Play...
  • Index (Encyclopædia Britannica)
    ...by a major revision of the 15th edition for 1985. For that printing, the Macropædia was greatly restructured, with the amalgamation and regrouping of hundreds of articles; the index function was taken from the Micropædia and placed in a separate two-volume Index; and both the Micropædia and the Propædia...
  • index (of a subgroup)
    ...example, in radioactive decay every atom is subject to a fixed probability of breaking down in any given time interval. More generally, a stochastic process refers to a family of random variables indexed against some other variable or set of variables. It is one of the most general objects of study in probability. Some basic types of stochastic processes include Markov processes, Poisson......
  • index (semiotics)
    ...and one of his major contributions to semiotics was the categorization of signs into three main types: (1) an icon, which resembles its referent (such as a road sign for falling rocks); (2) an index, which is associated with its referent (as smoke is a sign of fire); and (3) a symbol, which is related to its referent only by convention (as with words or traffic signals). Peirce also......
  • index (fiscal policy)
    in fiscal policy, a means of offsetting the effect of inflation or deflation on social security payments and taxes by measuring the “real value” of money from a fixed point of reference, usually a price index. Without indexing, recipients of social security benefits, for example, would suffer during times of inflation if their benefits remained at a fixed rate. Indexation in this ca...
  • index (information retrieval)
    American bibliographer and library administrator whose indexing of periodicals became authoritative....
  • Index (Roman Catholicism)
    (Latin: “Index of Forbidden Books”), list of books once forbidden by Roman Catholic church authority as dangerous to the faith or morals of Roman Catholics. Publication of the list ceased in 1966, and it was relegated to the status of a historic document....
  • “Index Auctorum et Librorum Prohibitorum” (Roman Catholicism)
    (Latin: “Index of Forbidden Books”), list of books once forbidden by Roman Catholic church authority as dangerous to the faith or morals of Roman Catholics. Publication of the list ceased in 1966, and it was relegated to the status of a historic document....
  • Index Britanniae Scriptorum Quos Collegit J. Baleus (work by Bale)
    ...catalogus (1557–59, reprinted 1977; “Catalogue of Great Britain’s Illustrious Writers”); and an autograph notebook, first published in 1902 by R.L. Poole and M. Bateson as Index Britanniae Scriptorum Quos Collegit J. Baleus (“Index of Britain’s Writers Collected by J. Bale”). Though not always accurate, this early literary history i...
  • Index Catalogue (classification system)
    ...classification system for the library resulted in his founding of the Index Medicus (1879), a monthly guide to current medical literature, and publication of the first edition of the Index Catalogue, 16 vol. (1880–95). The first of their kind, both indexes long remained predominant medical references, and the Index Medicus is still regarded as one of the primary......
  • Index Catalogues (star catalogues)
    ...Catalogue (NGC) of J.L. Dreyer, published in 1888. It contains the location and a brief description of 7,840 nebulae, galaxies, and clusters. In 1895 and 1908 it was supplemented by two Index Catalogues (IC) of 5,386 additional objects. The list still included galaxies as well as true nebulae, for they were often at this time still indistinguishable. Most of the brighter......
  • index fossil
    any animal or plant preserved in the rock record of the Earth that is characteristic of a particular span of geologic time or environment. A useful index fossil must be distinctive or easily recognizable, abundant, and have a wide geographic distribution and a short range through time. Index fossils are the basis for defining boundaries in the geologic time scale and for the correlation of strata...
  • Index Kewensis (botanical index)
    ...of the institution are the Kew Bulletin (issued quarterly) and Kew Scientist (issued biannually). The Index Kewensis, which is edited at Kew, maintains a record of all described higher plant species of the world from the time of Linnaeus....
  • Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Roman Catholicism)
    (Latin: “Index of Forbidden Books”), list of books once forbidden by Roman Catholic church authority as dangerous to the faith or morals of Roman Catholics. Publication of the list ceased in 1966, and it was relegated to the status of a historic document....
  • Index Medicus (medical publication)
    ...ultimately the National Library of Medicine, the world’s largest medical reference centre. His attempt to construct a logical classification system for the library resulted in his founding of the Index Medicus (1879), a monthly guide to current medical literature, and publication of the first edition of the Index Catalogue, 16 vol. (1880–95). The first of their kind,...
  • Index of Coincidence and Its Applications in Cryptography, The (work by Friedman)
    William Friedman wrote The Index of Coincidence and Its Applications in Cryptography (1922), one of the standard works in the nomenclature and classification of ciphers. Together, the Friedmans wrote The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined (1957), in which they denied Francis Bacon’s purported authorship of the William Shakespeare plays and sonnets....
  • index of refraction (physics)
    measure of the bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. If i is the angle of incidence of a ray in vacuum (angle between the incoming ray and the perpendicular to the surface of a medium, called the normal; see figure), and r is the angle of refraction (angle between the ray in the medium and the normal), the refractive index n is defined as ...
  • indexation (fiscal policy)
    in fiscal policy, a means of offsetting the effect of inflation or deflation on social security payments and taxes by measuring the “real value” of money from a fixed point of reference, usually a price index. Without indexing, recipients of social security benefits, for example, would suffer during times of inflation if their benefits remained at a fixed rate. Indexation in this ca...
  • indexed-sequential file (computing)
    ...can be either purely indexed, in which case the records need be in no particular order and every individual record must have an index entry that points to the record’s location, or they can be “indexed-sequential.” In this case a sort order of the records as well as of the indexes is maintained, and index entries need only give the location of a block of sequentially ordere...
  • indexing (information retrieval)
    American bibliographer and library administrator whose indexing of periodicals became authoritative....
  • indexing (botany)
    ...be done to restore its health. Control is accomplished by several methods, such as growing resistant species and varieties of plants or obtaining virus-free seed, cuttings, or plants as a result of indexing and certification programs. Indexing is a procedure to determine the presence or absence of viruses not readily transmitted mechanically. Material from a “test” plant is grafte...
  • India
    country that occupies the greater part of South Asia. It is a constitutional republic consisting of 28 states, each with a substantial degree of control over its own affairs; 6 less fully empowered union territories; and the Delhi national capital territory, which includes New Delhi, India’s capital. With roughly one-sixth of the world’s total population, India is ...
  • India Act (Great Britain [1784])
    ...entitled Government of India acts. The act of 1773, also known as the Regulating Act, set up a governor-general of Fort William in Bengal with supervisory powers over Madras and Bombay. Pitt’s India Act (1784), named for the British prime minister William Pitt the Younger, established the dual system of control by the British government and the East India Company, by which the company......
  • India Bill (Great Britain [1783])
    ...company’s privileges ran out, but this was during the crisis of the American Revolution, so a decision was delayed until 1784. Charles James Fox’s radical measure to transfer the control of British India to seven commissioners was defeated by the influence of King George III in the House of Lords, but the next year the matter was settled for more than 70 years by Prime Minister Wi...
  • India, Casa da (Portuguese trade company)
    15th-century Portuguese establishment that managed the trade in products from overseas colonies. It was called House of Guinea because it began by processing products from Guinea. Originally housed in a warehouse at Lagos in southern Portugal, it was reestablished in Lisbon with the death of Prince Henry the Navigator (1460). As trade from São Jorge da Mina (now Elmina, Ghana) on the Africa...
  • India, flag of
    ...
  • India, history of
    The Indian subcontinent, the great landmass of South Asia, is the home of one of the world’s oldest and most influential civilizations. In this article, the subcontinent, which for historical purposes is usually called simply “India,” is understood to comprise the areas of not only the present-day Republic of India but also the republics of Pakistan (partitioned from India in ...
  • India, House of (Portuguese trade company)
    15th-century Portuguese establishment that managed the trade in products from overseas colonies. It was called House of Guinea because it began by processing products from Guinea. Originally housed in a warehouse at Lagos in southern Portugal, it was reestablished in Lisbon with the death of Prince Henry the Navigator (1460). As trade from São Jorge da Mina (now Elmina, Ghana) on the Africa...
  • India ink
    black pigment in the form of sticks that are moistened before use in drawing and lettering, or the fluid ink consisting of this pigment finely suspended in a liquid medium, such as water, and a glutinous binder. The sticks or cakes consist of specially prepared lampblack, or carbon black, mixed with a gum or glue and sometimes perfume. India ink was used in Ch...
  • India padauk (tree)
    any of several timber trees of the genus Pterocarpus of the pea family (Fabaceae or Leguminosae). The name refers especially to P. indicus, or India padauk, or the hard wood, noted for its ability to take a high polish, that is derived from the trees. Narra wood is used for cabinetwork; it is usually red or rose colour, often variegated with yellow, and is hard and heavy. The......
  • India, Republic of
    country that occupies the greater part of South Asia. It is a constitutional republic consisting of 28 states, each with a substantial degree of control over its own affairs; 6 less fully empowered union territories; and the Delhi national capital territory, which includes New Delhi, India’s capital. With roughly one-sixth of the world’s total population, India is ...
  • India rubber plant (tree)
    (species Ficus elastica), large tree in its native Southeast Asia and in other warm areas but a common indoor pot plant elsewhere. It has large, thick, oblong leaves, up to 30 cm (12 inches) long and figlike fruits in pairs along the branches. The milky sap, or latex, was once an important source of an inferior natural rubber....
  • India rubber tree (tree)
    (species Ficus elastica), large tree in its native Southeast Asia and in other warm areas but a common indoor pot plant elsewhere. It has large, thick, oblong leaves, up to 30 cm (12 inches) long and figlike fruits in pairs along the branches. The milky sap, or latex, was once an important source of an inferior natural rubber....
  • India, Survey of (international cartographic organization)
    ...emperor Akbar. In 1733 a French geographer, Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d’Arville, compiled the first map of Tibet and the Himalayan range based on systematic exploration. In the mid-19th century the Survey of India organized a systematic program to measure correctly the heights of the Himalayan peaks. The Nepal and Uttarakhand peaks were observed and mapped between 1849 and 1855. N...
  • Indian (people)
    member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere. Eskimos (Inuit and Yupik/Yupiit) and Aleuts are often excluded from this category because their closest genetic and cultural relations were and are with other Arctic peoples rather than the groups to their south. (See also Sidebar: Tribal No...
  • Indian (ethnic group with origin in India)
    South Africans of Indian descent, who were classified under apartheid as Asian, form a large minority. They went to South Africa originally as indentured workers imported by the British to the former Natal colony beginning in the 1850s and were followed by a smaller group of immigrant traders later in the 19th century. Most of them now live in KwaZulu-Natal and to a lesser extent in Gauteng,......
  • Indian (nationality)
    South Africans of Indian descent, who were classified under apartheid as Asian, form a large minority. They went to South Africa originally as indentured workers imported by the British to the former Natal colony beginning in the 1850s and were followed by a smaller group of immigrant traders later in the 19th century. Most of them now live in KwaZulu-Natal and to a lesser extent in Gauteng,.........
  • Indian Act (Canada [1876])
    In Canada the word Indian has a legal definition given in the Indian Act of 1876. People legally defined as Indians are known as status Indians. Indians who have chosen to give up their status rights or who have lost them through intermarriage with those of European ancestry are called nonstatus Indians. (Beginning in 1985, Canadian law has allowed those who lost their status through......
  • Indian Adoption Project (United States program)
    ...institutionalized at residential schools and other facilities. This changed in the late 1950s, when the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs joined with the Child Welfare League of America in launching the Indian Adoption Project (IAP), the country’s first large-scale transracial adoption program. The IAP eventually moved between 25 and 35 percent of the native children in the United States int...
  • Indian Affairs, Bureau of (United States agency)
    The U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) assists Alaska’s natives in achieving economic and social self-sufficiency. Despite a number of helpful programs, many of Alaska’s natives suffer from unemployment, low income, and poverty. The native peoples were educated first by missionary groups, though by the time of statehood the BIA had assumed most of the responsibility for education. F...
  • Indian Airlines
    the domestic and regional airline of India, founded in 1953. Whereas the airline Air-India provides a broader international service, Indian Airlines serves the Indian subcontinent—India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), and Sri Lanka. Headquarters are in New Dehli....
  • Indian Airlines Corporation
    the domestic and regional airline of India, founded in 1953. Whereas the airline Air-India provides a broader international service, Indian Airlines serves the Indian subcontinent—India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), and Sri Lanka. Headquarters are in New Dehli....
  • Indian almond (plant)
    ...America; T. obovata, of the West Indies and South America; and T. superba, of West Africa yield woods used for cabinetwork, tools, and boat construction. T. catappa, the Indian, or tropical, almond, is commonly cultivated for ornament, particularly along streets in the tropics. ...
  • Indian almond family (plant family)
    Combretaceae, or the white mangrove (or Indian almond) family, with about 500 species in 14 genera of mostly trees and shrubs, is especially important along tropical seacoasts, in African savannas, and in Asiatic monsoon forests. It comprises mangrove species of muddy shores or estuaries; examples include Laguncularia (white mangrove) and Lumnitzera (eastern mangrove), as well as......
  • Indian alphabets
    those that include the syllabic Kharoṣṭhī and semialphabetic Brāhmī scripts of ancient India. No systems of writing subsequently developed from the Kharoṣṭhī script. Brāhmī, however, is thought to be the forerunner of all of the scripts used for writing the languages of India, Tibet, Southea...
  • Indian American (American ethnic group)
    those that include the syllabic Kharoṣṭhī and semialphabetic Brāhmī scripts of ancient India. No systems of writing subsequently developed from the Kharoṣṭhī script. Brāhmī, however, is thought to be the forerunner of all of the scripts used for writing the languages of India, Tibet, Southea...
  • Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Department of (Canadian agency)
    ...magistrate, and several justices of the peace. Law enforcement is carried out by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The federal government administers the territories’ natural resources through the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada....
  • Indian and Woman (painting by Pechstein)
    ...Brücke and his exposure to the works of Henri Matisse led Pechstein to begin to use vigorous brush strokes and jarring combinations of unmixed colours, as in his painting Indian and Woman (1910). He frequently painted with Heckel and fellow Die Brücke member Ernst Ludwig Kirchner....
  • Indian Appropriation Act (United States law [1871])
    ...annual payments (annuities) comprising cash, livestock, supplies, and services. A second major treaty convention occurred at Fort Laramie in 1868, but treaty making ceased with the passage of the Indian Appropriation Act (1871), which declared that “hereafter no Indian nation or tribe” would be recognized “as an independent power with whom the United States may contract by....
  • Indian Archaeological Survey (Indian history)
    English director general of the Indian Archaeological Survey (1902–31) who in the 1920s was responsible for the large-scale excavations that revealed Harappā and Mohenjo-daro, the two largest cities of the previously unknown Indus Valley Civilization....
  • Indian architecture
    Architecture is perhaps India’s greatest glory. Among the most renowned monuments are many cave temples hewn from rock (of which those at Ajanta and Ellora are most noteworthy); the Sun Temple at Konarak (Konarka); the vast temple complexes at Bhubaneshwar, Khajuraho, and Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram); such Mughal masterpieces as Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal; and, from the 20th centu...
  • Indian art (visual arts)
    the visual art of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas, often called American Indians. For a further discussion of the visual art of the Americas produced in the period after European contact, see Latin American art. ...
  • Indian art (Asian arts)
    the visual art of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas, often called American Indians. For a further discussion of the visual art of the Americas produced in the period after European contact, see Latin American art. ......
  • Indian Arts and Crafts Board (United States government)
    Another surge of interest came with the enactment of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, by means of which the Indian Arts and Crafts Board came into existence. Sparked by John Collier, then commissioner of Indian affairs, this body is one of the few governmental organizations set up specifically to promote, encourage, and revive native arts and crafts. While intended largely as an economic......
  • Indian Association (political organization, India)
    nationalist political group in India that favoured local self-government and served as a preparatory agent for the more truly national Indian National Congress. The association was founded in Bengal in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose; it soon displaced the Indian League, which had been founded the year before, and rivaled the long-standing British Indian Ass...
  • Indian baskets (visual arts)
    the visual art of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas, often called American Indians. For a further discussion of the visual art of the Americas produced in the period after European contact, see Latin American art. ...
  • Indian Battle Park (park, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada)
    A replica of Fort Whoop-Up (1860), once notorious for its whisky trade with the Indians, stands in Indian Battle Park; on the banks of the Oldman River, the park marks the site of the last great encounter (1870) between the Cree and the Blackfoot Indians prior to a peace treaty (1871). The Nikka Yuko Japanese Garden (created 1967) is one of the largest authentic Japanese gardens in North......
  • Indian beadwork (visual arts)
    the visual art of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas, often called American Indians. For a further discussion of the visual art of the Americas produced in the period after European contact, see Latin American art. ...
  • Indian black vulture (bird)
    The red-headed vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), often called the Pondicherry vulture or the Indian (black) vulture, is an Old World vulture ranging from Pakistan to Malaysia. It is about 75 cm (30 inches) long and has a wingspan of about 2.7 metres (8.9 feet). It is black with white down on the breast and has a huge black beak and large lappets on the sides of the neck....
  • Indian Botanic Garden (garden, Calcutta, India)
    botanical garden in Calcutta, famous for its enormous collections of orchids, bamboos, palms, and plants of the screw pine genus (Pandanus). The garden covers more than 109 hectares (270 acres), on which about 1,700 plant species are cultivated. It was founded in 1787 by the East India Company, primarily for the purpose of acclimatizing new plants of co...
  • Indian Bridge (Barbados)
    capital and port of the island-state of Barbados, in the West Indies, southeastern Caribbean Sea. It is on the southwestern end of the island, on the wide curve of Carlisle Bay. A built-up coastal strip stretches for several miles on each side of the town....
  • Indian buffalo (mammal)
    either of two forms, wild and domestic, of Asian mammal similar to the ox. There are 74 breeds of domestic water buffalo numbering some 165 million animals, but only small numbers of wild water buffalo remain. Both forms are gray to black with off-white “socks” and one or two white chevrons on the neck; domestic forms may have more white. Horns i...
  • Indian Child Welfare Act (United States [1978])
    ...that it was much better for children than life in an orphanage or in foster care. In the late 20th century the issue continued to be addressed in court rulings and legislation. In 1978 the federal Indian Child Welfare Act required that placements of Native American children living on reservations give preference to applicants from within the child’s tribe or extended family. Another fede...
  • Indian Civil Service (Indian government)
    ...part of colonies and other dependencies whose predominant indigenous populations had no such experience. For them a variety of administrative techniques was tried, ranging from the sophisticated Indian Civil Service, with its largely effective adoption of native practices in civil law and administration, to the very loose and indirect supervision exercised in a number of African territories,......
  • Indian Claims Commission (United States government)
    ...was cited by the Hualapai against the Santa Fe Railway, which in 1944 was required to relinquish about 500,000 acres (200,000 hectares) it thought it had been granted by the United States. A special Indian Claims Commission, created by an act of Congress on Aug. 13, 1946, received petitions for land claims against the United States. Many land claims resulted in significant compensation,......
  • Indian Commissioners, Board of (United States history)
    ...adoption of programs designed to prepare the Indians for ultimate assimilation into American society. In 1869 the reformers persuaded President Grant and Congress to establish a nonpolitical Board of Indian Commissioners to supervise the administration of relations between the government and the Indians. The board, however, encountered so much political opposition that it accomplished......
  • Indian cooking
    ...and noodle regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as important as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the lavish use of spices is characteristic; coconuts and seafood are used throughout the......
  • Indian corn (plant)
    in agriculture, cereal plant of the tribe Maydeae of the grass family Gramineae (Poaceae), originating in the Americas, and its edible grain....
  • Indian Councils Act (1861, India)
    From 1858 to 1909 the government of India was an increasingly centralized paternal despotism and the world’s largest imperial bureaucracy. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 transformed the viceroy’s Executive Council into a miniature cabinet run on the portfolio system, and each of the five ordinary members was placed in charge of a distinct department of Calcutta’s government...
  • Indian Councils Act (1892, India)
    ...barometer and the beginnings of an advisory “safety valve” that provided the viceroy with early crisis warnings at the minimum possible risk of parliamentary-type opposition. The act of 1892 further expanded the council’s permissible additional membership to 16, of whom 10 could be nonofficial, and increased their powers, though only to the extent of allowing them to ask......
  • Indian Councils Act (United Kingdom [1909])
    ...a leading position among India’s Muslims as a whole. In 1906 he headed the Muslim deputation to the British viceroy, Lord Minto, to promote the interests of the Muslim minority in India. The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 consequently provided for separate Muslim electorates. The Aga Khan served as president of the All-India Muslim League during its early years and initiated the fund for.....
  • Indian courser (bird)
    ...with their short wings. The best-known species is the cream-coloured courser (Cursorius cursor) of Africa, a pale-brown bird with white underparts, bold eye stripes, and black wing tips. The Indian courser (C. coromandelicus) is brown with a strong face pattern. The bronze-winged courser (Rhinoptilus chalcopterus), largest of several species in sub-Saharan Africa, frequents...
  • Indian crane (bird)
    Other notable birds in India include the Indian crane, commonly known as the sarus (Grus antigone); a large gray bird with crimson legs, the sarus stands as tall as a human. Bustards inhabit India’s grasslands. The great Indian bustard (Choriotis nigriceps), now confined to central and western India, is an endangered......
  • Indian cress (plant)
    Tropaeolum majus, the common nasturtium, is also known as Indian cress. The young flower buds and fruit are sometimes used as seasoning. The plant grows 2.4–3.6 m (8–12 feet) tall, and the flowers are commonly yellow-orange with red spots or stripes. T. minus, the dwarf nasturtium, has flowers 3 cm (1.2 inches) across or less. T. peltophorum, the......
  • Indian crested tree swift (bird)
    A widespread species is the crested tree swift (Hemiprocne longipennis), ranging from Southeast Asia eastward to the Celebes. It is about 20 cm (8 inches) long and has pale blue-gray upperparts, dark brown wings and tail, and reddish cheeks. The 29-centimetre-long whiskered tree swift (H. mystacea) of Southeast Asia is mostly black....
  • Indian Criminal Procedure Code (law)
    Some Islamic countries of English and French colonial heritage adopted the procedure of the colonial countries that ruled them. For example, Pakistan, which originally inherited the Indian Criminal Procedure Code, adopted an adversarial system similar to that of England. Both sides in a trial present their oral arguments to an impartial judge, and there is a competent and independent bar from......
  • Indian cuisine
    ...and noodle regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as important as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the lavish use of spices is characteristic; coconuts and seafood are used throughout the......
  • Indian currant (plant)
    ...with elliptical leaves, and a profusion of berries. The Chinese species, S. sinensis, has bluish black berries. Wolfberry (S. occidentalis), about 1.5 m tall, bears white berries. Indian currant, or coralberry (S. orbiculatus), more than 2 m tall, bears purplish berries. Creeping snowberry is a plant of the genus Gaultheria (family Ericaceae)....
  • Indian dance (South Asian arts)
    Dance in India can be organized into three categories: classical, folk, and modern. Classical dance forms are among the best preserved and oldest practiced in the 20th century. The royal courts, the temples, and the guru to pupil teaching tradition have kept this art alive and unchanged. Folk dancing has remained in rural areas as an expression of the daily work and rituals of village......
  • Indian dance
    the dance of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas, often called American Indians....
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