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  • National Research Act (United States [1974])
    ...in the Washington Star. A class-action suit against the federal government was settled out of court for $10 million in 1974. That same year the U.S. Congress passed the National Research Act, requiring institutional review boards to approve all studies involving human subjects. In 1997 President Bill Clinton issued a formal apology for the study (see Sidebar:......
  • National Research Council (American organization)
    In 1916 the academy established the National Research Council to coordinate the activities of various scientists and engineers in universities, industry, and government; the council issues many publications and awards a number of postdoctoral fellowships. In 1950 the Academy and the Council were administratively joined. In 1964 the National Academy of Engineering was organized under the 1963......
  • National Resistance Army (military organization, Uganda)
    ...and exile in 1985 and to the seizure of power by an Acholi general, Tito Okello. This, however, could not prevent a victory for Museveni’s force of southern fighters, who now called themselves the National Resistance Army (NRA), and Museveni became president on January 29, 1986. While a new constitution was being drafted, an indirectly elected National Resistance Council, dominated by th...
  • National Resistance Council (French history)
    ...and in southern France (ruled by the puppet Vichy regime) other resistance groups were formed by former army officers, socialists, labour leaders, intellectuals, and others. In 1943 the clandestine National Council of the Resistance (Conseil National de la Résistance) was established as the central organ of coordination among all French groups. Early the following year, various......
  • National Resistance Movement (political organization, Uganda)
    ...1979. Museveni held posts in transitional governments and in 1980 ran for president of Uganda. When the elections, widely believed to have been rigged, were won by Milton Obote, Museveni formed the National Resistance Movement. The resistance eventually prevailed, and on January 26, 1986, Museveni declared himself president of Uganda. He was elected to the post on May 9, 1996, and his backers.....
  • National Retired Teachers Association (American organization)
    ...was founded in 1958 by a retired teacher, Ethel Percy Andrus, with the goal of helping older Americans remain physically and intellectually active by serving others. In 1982 the AARP merged with the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA), an organization that Andrus had founded in 1947 to obtain pension and health insurance benefits for retired educators....
  • National Review (American magazine)
    biweekly magazine of news and opinion published in New York City, and the leading conservative journal in the United States. It was founded in 1955 by William F. Buckley, Jr. ...
  • National Revival (Bulgarian history)
    ...the accompanying cultural domination of Bulgaria by Greece, Rila again flourished, in part owing to its isolation from Ottoman power centres. In the 18th and 19th centuries Rila was a cradle for the “National Revival” of Bulgaria. The monastery supported book publishing, a library and archives, and various educational institutions. It also attracted a large number of pilgrims....
  • National Revolutionary Council (military organization, Burkina Faso)
    ...and installed Major Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo as president. The Ouedraogo government soon split into conservative and radical factions, with the radicals seizing power on August 4, 1983. They set up a National Revolutionary Council (CNR) with Captain Thomas Sankara as head of state....
  • National Revolutionary Movement (political party, Republic of the Congo)
    ...mass disapproval, general strikes, and lack of French support led to Youlou’s ouster in 1963. His successor, Alphonse Massamba-Débat, shifted policies to the left, notably by founding the National Revolutionary Movement (Mouvement National de la Révolution; MNR) as the sole party. The country sought assistance from the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China ...
  • National Revolutionary Movement (political party, Bolivia)
    ...dissident groups finally began to organize themselves into powerful national opposition parties in the 1940s. The two most important of these were the middle-class and initially fascist-oriented Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario; MNR) and the Marxist and largely pro-Soviet Party of the Revolutionary Left (Partido de la Izquierda Revolucionaria; PIR).......
  • National Revolutionary Movement for Development (political party, Rwanda)
    ...of government. The president at the time, Juvénal Habyarimana, combined the roles of head of state and head of government with that of president of what was then the single ruling party, the National Revolutionary Movement for Development. He was returned to office by referenda in 1983 and 1988. A revised constitution was enacted in 1991 that allowed for multiparty participation in......
  • National Revolutionary Party (political party, Mexico)
    Mexican political party that dominated the country’s political institutions from its founding in 1929 until the end of the 20th century. Virtually all important figures in Mexican national and local politics belonged to the party, because the nomination of its candidate to a public office was almost always tantamount to election. Originally called the National Revolutionary Party (Partido R...
  • National Rifle Association (British organization)
    ...activities in the second half of the 20th century was highly effective political lobbying against various legislative proposals for the control of firearms. The American NRA was modeled after the National Rifle Association in Great Britain, which had been formed in 1860. Both the British and U.S. groups sponsor regional and national competitions and select teams for international events. The......
  • National Rifle Association of America (United States organization)
    governing organization for the sport of shooting with rifles and pistols, formed in the United States in 1871. By the early 1990s it claimed a membership of about 3 million target shooters, hunters, gun collectors, gunsmiths, police, and others interested in firearms. Among the NRA’s more publicized activities in the second half of the 20th century was highly effective political lobbying ag...
  • National Road (highway, United States)
    first federal highway in the United States and for several years the main route to what was then the Northwest Territory. Built (1811–37) from Cumberland, Md. (western terminus of a state road from Baltimore and of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal), to Vandalia, Ill., it forms part of the present U.S. Route 40. In April 1802 Congress appropriated land-sale funds to finance an overland link bet...
  • National Roman Museum (museum, Rome, Italy)
    in Rome, one of the world’s greatest museums of ancient Greco-Roman art, founded in 1889 and housed in a monastery restored by Michelangelo on the site of the baths of Diocletian. The museum is also known as the Terme Museum after the Terme (thermal baths) of Diocletian. It contains antiquities discovered in Rome since 1870, as well as the treasures of the Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi collect...
  • National Route 66 Museum (museum, Oklahoma, United States)
    ...is 5 miles (8 km) northwest, and the Washita National Wildlife Refuge and Foss Lake State Park are nearby. Old Town Museum at the city’s western edge is a replica of an early Western town. The National Route 66 Museum, celebrating the historic highway linking Chicago with Los Angeles, opened in 1998 and is a popular local attraction. Inc. 1907. Pop. (1990) 10,428; (2000) 10,510....
  • National Salvation Front (political party, Romania)
    ...against Ceaușescu organized by reform communists and disaffected elements of the Securitate and army. A loose coalition of groups opposed to Ceaușescu quickly formed the National Salvation Front (NSF) to lead the country through the transition from communism to democracy; but, by the spring of 1990, fundamental differences had arisen within this group over the......
  • National Salvation Party (political party, Turkey)
    Lacking a majority, the CHP formed a coalition with the National Salvation Party (NSP), founded in 1972 as a successor to the banned NOP and led by Necmettin Erbakan. The electoral success of the NSP—which polled more than one-tenth of the vote—was striking. Although the constitution banned religious parties, the NSP was in all but name an Islamic party; in 1980 it called for the......
  • National Schism (Greek history)
    ...the early Venizélos years gave way to rancour and vindictiveness that was to poison the country’s political life throughout World War I and the interwar period. Greece was riven by the “National Schism,” a division of the country into irreconcilable camps supporting either King Constantine I or his prime minister, Venizélos. The immediate grounds for tension w...
  • National School of Administration (school, France)
    ...and education. Full-scale training of civil servants began in many Western countries in the decades after World War II. The most important development was perhaps the founding in 1945 of the National School of Administration in Paris, which serves as both a professional school and a recruitment agency for the French government’s administrative and diplomatic services. Great Britain,......
  • National School of Fine Arts (school, Paris, France)
    school of fine arts founded (as the Académie Royale d’Architecture) in Paris in 1671 by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, minister of Louis XIV; it merged with the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (founded in 1648) in 1793. The school offered instruction in drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving to students selected by competitive examinat...
  • National School Order (1941, Japan)
    ...the outbreak of war in the Pacific in 1941, the education system underwent emergency “reforms.” Elementary schools were renamed kokumingakkō, or national schools, under the National School Order issued in 1941. The order proclaimed the idea of a national polity or spirit peculiar to Japan; the content and the methods of education were revised to reflect this......
  • National Science Foundation (American organization)
    an independent agency of the U.S. government that supports basic research and education in a wide range of sciences and in mathematics and engineering. It was inspired by advances in science and technology that occurred as a result of World War II; the NSF was established by the U.S. Congress in the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. From a budget of approximately $3 billion in the mid-1990s...
  • National Science Foundation Network (communications)
    ...the University of Pittsburgh, the University of California, San Diego, the University of Illinois, and Cornell University. In the 1980s NSF also funded the development and operation of the NSFNET, a national “backbone” network to connect these centres. By the late 1980s the network was operating at millions of bits per second. NSF also funded various nonprofit local and......
  • National Science Museum (museum, Tokyo, Japan)
    museum in Tokyo, founded in 1872, concerned with the history of the physical sciences, natural history, and technology. The collections include models of Japanese flora in wax and other materials, engineering and scientific apparatus, and machines of historical interest....
  • national script (Vietnamese writing system)
    writing system used for the Vietnamese language. Quoc-ngu was devised in the mid 17th century by Portuguese missionaries who modified the Roman alphabet with accents and signs to suit the particular consonants, vowels, and tones of Vietnamese. It was further modified by a French missionary, Alexandre de Rhodes. At first used only in Vietnamese Christian commun...
  • national seashore (United States)
    in the United States, any of a number of coastal areas reserved by the federal government for recreational use by the public. Cape Hatteras in North Carolina was established as the first national seashore in 1953. Others have since been added and include Cape Cod (Massachusetts), Padre Island (Texas), Point Reyes (California), Fire Island (New York), Assateague Island (Maryland...
  • national security (government)
    It is likely that during the Cold War some national intelligence systems, especially those in the major countries, grew beyond their optimal size. Some countries also have experienced problems controlling their intelligence systems. In both democracies and authoritarian societies, these organizations are in a position to demand that their operations and the information they collect be kept......
  • National Security Act (United States [1947])
    U.S. agency within the Executive Office of the President, established by the National Security Act in 1947 to advise the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies related to national security. The president of the United States is chairman of the NSC; other members include the vice president and the secretaries of state and defense. Advisers to the NSC are the chairman of the Joint......
  • National Security Agency (United States agency)
    U.S. intelligence agency within the Department of Defense that is responsible for cryptographic and communications intelligence and security. The NSA grew out of the communications intelligence activities of U.S. military units during World War II. The NSA was established in 1952 by a presidential directive and, not being a creation of the Congress, is relatively immune to Congressional review; it...
  • National Security and Information, Organization of (Iranian government organization)
    Prior to the Islamic revolution of 1978–79 in Iran, SAVAK (Organization of National Security and Information), the Iranian secret police and intelligence service, protected the regime of the shah by arresting, torturing, and executing many dissidents. After the shah’s government fell, SAVAK and other intelligence services were eliminated and new services were created, though many low...
  • National Security Bureau (Taiwanese government agency)
    As part of its democratization process at the end of the 20th century, the government of Taiwan took major steps to reform its intelligence services. The once-covert National Security Bureau, developed in China in 1955, had a long history of clandestine arrests and executions. In 1994 it became a formal legal institution, and the names of its senior officials appeared in the press for the first......
  • National Security Council (Pakistani government)
    ...government. Although he was generally considered to hold moderate views and promised an eventual return to civilian rule, Musharraf suspended the constitution and dissolved parliament. He formed the National Security Council, made up of civilian and military appointees, to run Pakistan in the interim. In early 2001 he assumed the presidency and later attempted to negotiate an agreement with......
  • National Security Council (United States agency)
    U.S. agency within the Executive Office of the President, established by the National Security Act in 1947 to advise the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies related to national security. The president of the United States is chairman of the NSC; other members include the vice president and the secretaries of state and defense. Advisers to the NSC are the chairm...
  • National Security Council (Turkish government)
    ...third army intervention in 20 years, was generally supported by the public. The leading politicians were arrested, and parliament, political parties, and trade unions were dissolved. A five-member National Security Council took control, suspending the constitution and implementing a provisional constitution that gave almost unlimited power to military commanders. Martial law, which had been......
  • National Security Strategy of the United States of America (United States policy)
    In September 2002 the administration announced a new National Security Strategy of the United States of America. It was notable for its declaration that the United States would act “preemptively,” using military force if necessary, to forestall or prevent threats to its security by terrorists or “rogue states” possessing biological, chemical, or nuclear......
  • National Service Act (United Kingdom [1941])
    ...Within 18 months Anderson organized the most centralized and complete war mobilization of any nation. It included controls on trade, foreign exchange, wages and prices, and raw materials. The National Service Act of December 1941 outdid even the U.S.S.R. by making every man under 50 and every woman under 30 liable to government assignment. Of the 2,800,000 new war workers, 79 percent were......
  • National Severe Storms Forecasting Center (United States agency)
    Because tornadoes are so uniquely life-threatening and because they are so common in various regions of the United States, the National Weather Service operates a National Severe Storms Forecasting Center (NSSFC) in Kansas City, Mo., where SELS forecasters survey the atmosphere for the conditions that can spawn tornadoes or severe thunderstorms. This group of SELS forecasters, assembled in......
  • National Short Ballot Organization (American organization)
    The council-manager plan was devised and first advocated in the United States by the National Short Ballot Organization, which proposed to improve local and state government by reducing the number of elected officials. In 1913 Dayton, Ohio, was the first large city to adopt the plan. It spread quickly after that as the plan was adopted in many cities in the United States and Canada as well as......
  • National Ski Patrol System of the United States
    ...first aid for injured skiers. Ski patrolmen are proficient skiers trained in first aid and cold weather rescue and survival techniques. One of the largest such organizations in the world is the National Ski Patrol System of the United States, founded in 1938, with headquarters in Denver, Colo....
  • National Soccer League (Australian sports organization)
    ...tournaments, football became defined as an “ethnic game.” As a result, teams from Melbourne and Sydney with distinctive Mediterranean connections were the most prominent members of the National Soccer League (NSL) when it started in 1977. The league has widened its scope, however, to include a highly successful Perth side, plus a Brisbane club and even one from Auckland, New......
  • National Social Conference (Indian organization)
    ...Its members were instrumental in the organization of other important social-reform movements that arose at the turn of the century, including the Depressed Classes Mission Society of India and the National Social Conference. Like that of the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj, the success of the Prarthana Samaj in restoring Hindu self-respect was an important factor in the growth of Indian......
  • National Social Insurance Institute (Italian government)
    ...benefits in the case of accident, illness, disability, or unemployment, and provide assistance for the elderly. The largest of these agencies, which administers a wide range of benefits, is the National Social Insurance Institute (Istituto Nazionale della Previdenza Sociale; INPS)....
  • National Social Union (political organization, Germany)
    ...shaped the journal Die Hilfe (“Assistance”) into a forum for his ideas. Later, under the influence of the young sociologist Max Weber, Naumann founded the National Social Union (1896), an organization that combined a program of democratic and social reform with a call to national strength. After 1903, however, having failed to establish a political.....
  • National Socialism (political movement, Germany)
    totalitarian movement led by Adolf Hitler as head of the Nazi Party in Germany. In its intense nationalism, mass appeal, and dictatorial rule, National Socialism shared many elements with Italian fascism. However, Nazism was far more extreme both in its ideas and in its practice. In almost every respect ...
  • National Socialist German Workers’ Party (political party, Germany)
    political party of the mass movement known as National Socialism. Under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, the party came to power in Germany in 1933 and governed by totalitarian methods until 1945....
  • National Socialist Party (political party, Czech Republic)
    ...attracted by the Social Democrats and voted for their candidates. Václav Klofáč, a talented journalist, after several years of cooperation with the Young Czechs, founded the National Socialist Party. The peasants, dissatisfied with the increasing influence of big business and the upper middle class, turned away from the Young Czechs after 1890. An agrarian movement soon......
  • National Society of French Railways (French railway)
    state-owned railroad system of France, formed in 1938. The first railroad in France, from Saint-Étienne to Andrézieux, opened in 1827. A line from Saint-Étienne to Lyon was completed in 1832. In 1840 France had about 300 miles (500 km) of railroad, and by 1870, 9,300 miles (15,500 km)....
  • National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution (American organization)
    patriotic society organized October 11, 1890, and chartered by Congress December 2, 1896. Membership is limited to direct lineal descendants of soldiers or others of the Revolutionary period who aided the cause of independence; applicants must have reached 18 years of age and must be “personally acceptable” to the society. In the late 20th century the society’s membership tota...
  • National Space Development Agency (Japanese government agency)
    ...launch them, and it launched Japan’s first satellite, Ōsumi, in 1970. In 1981 oversight of ISAS was transferred to the Japanese Ministry of Education. In 1969 the Japanese government founded a National Space Development Agency (NASDA), which subsequently undertook a comprehensive program of space technology and satellite development and built a large launch vehicle, called the H-I...
  • National Space Society (American organization)
    ...launch them, and it launched Japan’s first satellite, Ōsumi, in 1970. In 1981 oversight of ISAS was transferred to the Japanese Ministry of Education. In 1969 the Japanese government founded a National Space Development Agency (NASDA), which subsequently undertook a comprehensive program of space technology and satellite development and built a large launch vehicle, called the H-I...
  • national state (historical territory, South Africa)
    any of 10 former territories that were designated by the white-dominated government of South Africa as pseudo-national homelands for the country’s black African (classified by the government as Bantu) population during the mid- to late 20th century. The Bantustans were a major administrative device for the exclusion of blacks from the South African political system under ...
  • National Steel Corporation (American company)
    U.S. iron- and steel-making company that in 1983 became a subsidiary of National Intergroup, Inc.....
  • National Suisse, Parc (park, Switzerland)
    national park in Graubünden canton, southeastern Switzerland, adjoining the Italian border 15 miles (24 km) northeast of Saint Moritz. Established in 1914 and enlarged in 1959, the park occupies 65 square miles (169 square km) and is made up of a magnificent area in the Central Alps and on the edge of the dolomitic Eastern Alps. It is primarily a nature reserve with scien...
  • National Symphony Orchestra (Mexican orchestra)
    ...local fiestas. To encourage and help disseminate Mexican art in all its forms, the federal government sponsors the National Institute of Fine Arts. Under its auspices are the programs of the National Symphony Orchestra, the Ballet Folklorico, and the Modern and Classical Ballet, all of which perform nationally and internationally to promote Mexican culture. Folk and popular culture also......
  • National Symphony Orchestra (American orchestra)
    American symphony orchestra based in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1931 by Hans Kindler, who served as its first music director (1931–49). Subsequent directors have been Howard Mitchell (1949–69), Antal Dorati (1970–77), Mstislav Rostropovich (1977–94), and Leonard Slatkin (music director designate, 1994–96; music direct...
  • National System of Education (educational program, Mozambique)
    The National System of Education, implemented in the early 1980s, created programs for people of all ages, part-time as well as full-time students, to improve both literacy and technical education. Private and parochial school facilities were nationalized to facilitate the reorganization and unification of the educational system. Although the number of primary, secondary, adult educational, and......
  • National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (highway system, United States)
    The mammoth U.S. Interstate Highway System (formally, the National System of Interstate and Defense Highways) developed in response to strong public pressures in the 1950s for a better road system. These pressures culminated in the establishment by President Dwight Eisenhower of the Clay Committee in 1954. Following this committee’s recommendations, the Federal Aid Highway Act and the Highw...
  • National System of Interstate Highways (highway system, United States)
    The mammoth U.S. Interstate Highway System (formally, the National System of Interstate and Defense Highways) developed in response to strong public pressures in the 1950s for a better road system. These pressures culminated in the establishment by President Dwight Eisenhower of the Clay Committee in 1954. Following this committee’s recommendations, the Federal Aid Highway Act and the Highw...
  • National System of Political Economy, The (work by List)
    ...and Dresden in 1837. Despite its success, the undertaking fell short of List’s financial and personal expectations, and he went to France in despair. There he wrote his most remembered book, The National System of Political Economy (1841). List was perennially plagued with financial difficulties, which, coupled with other problems, drove him to suicide....
  • National Television Systems Committee (United States committee)
    In 1952 the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) was reformed, this time with the purpose of creating an “industry color system.” The NTSC system that was demonstrated to the press in August 1952 and that would serve into the 21st century was virtually the RCA system. The first RCA colour TV set, the CT-100, rolled off the production line in early 1954. It had a 12-inch......
  • National Tennis League (American sports organization)
    ...but proposals were always defeated by conservative elements within the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF—later the ITF). In 1967, however, two new professional groups were formed: the National Tennis League, organized by former U.S. Davis Cup captain George MacCall, and World Championship Tennis (WCT), founded by New Orleans promoter Dave Dixon and funded by Dallas oil and......
  • National Theatre (theatre, Mannheim, Germany)
    ...flourishing cultural centre, with a school for conductors, violinists, and composers, an art gallery, and an academy of sciences. In 1778 the court moved to Munich. In that same year Germany’s first National Theatre opened in Mannheim, and in 1782 it gave the first performance of Friedrich Schiller’s play Die Räuber (The Robbers...
  • National Theatre (theatre, London, United Kingdom)
    a partly subsidized complex of British theatre companies that was formed in 1962. It was given a permanent home at the South Bank arts complex in the Greater London borough of Lambeth in 1976. In 1988 Queen Elizabeth II gave permission for the company to add “Royal” to its name....
  • National Theatre (theatre, Reykjavík, Iceland)
    The National Theatre began operation in 1950. It performs Icelandic as well as foreign classical and modern plays, operas, ballets, and musicals. The Reykjavík Theatre is the other full-time professional repertory theatre. Several theatre groups present numerous plays and musicals, both in Reykjavík and the countryside....
  • National Theatre (theatre, Seoul, South Korea)
    ...Dramatic Association of Korea. Many groups survived the war with Japan by touring small towns and villages. Performances lagged immediately after World War II because of unsettled conditions. A new National Theatre was established in Seoul just before the Korean War began; national support included subsidies for performances. In both North and South Korea virtually all theatres were destroyed.....
  • National Theatre (theatre, Budapest, Hungary)
    In 1838 he became the first conductor of the newly opened Hungarian Theatre of Pest (from 1840 the National Theatre). There he worked to develop Hungarian-language operatic performance with the intention of creating an opera company capable of competing with the German Theatre of Pest. In addition to staging works by GioachinoRossini, Vincenzo Bellini, Daniel-François-Esprit Auber, and......
  • National Theatre (theatre, Tokyo, Japan)
    At present, regular performances are held at the Kabuki Theatre (Kabuki-za)—with a capacity of 1,600—and the National Theatre, both in Tokyo. Other theatres have occasional performances. Troupes of Kabuki actors also perform outside of Tokyo. There are several such companies, but their memberships often overlap. At the Kabuki Theatre, the length of an average program is about five......
  • National Theatre of Dona Maria II (theatre, Lisbon, Portugal)
    Lisbon’s municipal orchestra was founded in 1971. The city is also the site of the National Conservatory, which offers advanced instruction in both music and drama. The St. Charles and the National Theatre of Dona Maria II are Lisbon’s two principal theatres. The former, which was constructed in the late 18th century, has a beautiful elliptical interior, and the latter, which was bui...
  • National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act (United States [1966])
    ...auto industry in general for its unsafe products and attacked General Motors’ (GM’s) Corvair automobile in particular. The book became a best-seller and led directly to the passage of the 1966 National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act, which gave the government the power to enact safety standards for all automobiles sold in the United States....
  • National Transcontinental Railway (Canadian railroad)
    ...line from Moncton, N.B., near the ports of Halifax and Saint John, passing through mainly timbered land to the south bank of the St. Lawrence River at Levis opposite Quebec city. From there, the National Transcontinental Railway crossed the Canadian Shield to Winnipeg. There the project was joined to a line of the Grand Trunk. The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway beginning at Winnipeg passed......
  • National Transitional Government (Liberia)
    ...considerable political unrest and violence precluded any stable leadership in power from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s. A power-sharing agreement in 2003 largely ended the fighting and created a National Transitional Government (NTG). The NTG, supported by United Nations peacekeeping troops, replaced the government under the 1986 constitution and ruled until a democratically elected......
  • national treatment of nontariff restrictions clause
    A “national treatment of nontariff restrictions” clause is necessary because most of the properties of tariffs can be easily duplicated with an appropriately designed set of nontariff restrictions. These can include discriminatory regulations, selective excise or sales taxes, special “health” requirements, quotas, “voluntary” restraints on importing, speci...
  • National Trust (British organization)
    British organization founded in 1895 and incorporated by the National Trust Act (1907) for the purpose of promoting the preservation of—and public access to—buildings of historic or architectural interest and land of natural beauty. (The powers and privileges of the Trust were extended by acts of Parliament of 1919, 1937, and 1939.) Headquartered in London, it serves England, Wales, ...
  • National Trust for Historic Preservation (American organization)
    ...of its properties. The trust receives no direct government subsidy and relies upon careful economic management, although certain legal preferences operate in its favour. In the United States the National Trust for Historic Preservation operates in a similar way....
  • National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty (British organization)
    British organization founded in 1895 and incorporated by the National Trust Act (1907) for the purpose of promoting the preservation of—and public access to—buildings of historic or architectural interest and land of natural beauty. (The powers and privileges of the Trust were extended by acts of Parliament of 1919, 1937, and 1939.) Headquartered in London, it serves England, Wales, ...
  • National Trust of Australia (Australian organization)
    ...bicentennial of the first white settlement in Australia at Sydney Cove in 1788 reinforced a concern with things past. There is a strong movement for historical preservation, served by the private National Trust of Australia (NSW) and by the state Heritage Council, which has sweeping powers to prevent demolition or alteration of buildings identified as having historical value....
  • National Typographical Union (labour organization, United States-Canada)
    ...the National Typographical Union, was formed in 1852 in the United States. Like other national unions that followed, it chartered locals in Canada as well; this led to its renaming in 1869 as the International Typographical Union—a designation that became common in North American unionism....
  • National Union (political party, South Africa)
    There was already talk of using force to remedy the grievances of the Uitlanders in the Transvaal. The Uitlanders formed a National Union to support their cause, with Rhodes’s brother Frank among its leaders. Kruger sought the support of Germany, and in 1895 he again closed the “drifts” across the Vaal. Once more he was forced to withdraw, and by this time a conspiracy against...
  • National Union (political group, Norway)
    ...became fascist after 1936); the Party of Free Believers (Elefterofronoi) in Greece, led by Ioannis Metaxas; the Ustaša (“Insurgence”) in Croatia, led by Ante Pavelić; the National Union (Nasjonal Samling) in Norway, which was in power for only a week—though its leader, Vidkun Quisling, was later made minister president under the German occupation; and the......
  • National Union Catalog (American library catalog)
    ...the printed catalog cards, and MARC (see below Technical services: Cataloging), the library’s practices are widely followed. Its last great printed product was the 754-volume National Union Catalog: Pre-1956 Imprints. In 1983 the library began producing most of the National Union Catalog on microfiche (sheets of microfilm containing rows of microimages of pages......
  • National Union Convention (American political coalition)
    The president, the Northern Democrats, and the Southern whites spurned this Republican plan of Reconstruction. Johnson tried to organize his own political party in the National Union Convention, which met in Philadelphia in August 1866; and in August and September he visited many Northern and Western cities in order to defend his policies and to attack the Republican leaders. At the president...
  • National Union for Democracy (political party, Cameroon)
    ...in 1985. After much political unrest and many violent clashes, a constitutional amendment in 1990 established a multiparty system; main opposition groups included the Social Democratic Front, the National Union for Democracy and Progress, and the Cameroon Democratic Union....
  • National Union for Equal Citizenship (British organization)
    ...after his short parliamentary career. In 1867 he had been one of the founders, with Mrs. P.A. Taylor, Emily Davies, and others, of the first women’s suffrage society, which developed into the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, and in 1869 he published The Subjection of Women (written 1861), the classical theoretical statement of the case for woman suffrage. His l...
  • National Union for Hope (political party, Guatemala)
    ...the neoliberal National Advancement Party (Partido de Avanzada Nacional; PAN), and the National Alliance (Alianza National; AN). Notable parties that formed in the early 21st century include the National Union for Hope (Unión Nacional de Esperanza; UNE), the Patriotic Party (Partido Patriota; PP), the Grand National Alliance (Gran Alianza Nacional; GANA), and the Centre of Social......
  • National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (political organization, Angola)
    Angolan political party that was originally founded to free the nation from Portuguese colonial rule....
  • National Union of Conservative and Unionist Associations (political party, United Kingdom)
    in the United Kingdom, a political party whose guiding principles include the promotion of private property and enterprise, the maintenance of a strong military, and the preservation of traditional cultural values and institutions. Since World War I the Conservative Party and its principal opponent, the Labour Party, have dominated British political life....
  • National Union of Mineworkers (labour union, South Africa)
    ...of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), which maintains a formal political alliance with the ANC and is a nonracial but mainly black body that includes the country’s largest unions, among them the National Union of Mineworkers. Other federations include the black consciousness-rooted National Council of Trade Unions and the mainly white Federation of South African Labour....
  • National Union of Mineworkers (labour union, United Kingdom)
    ...illegal, providing for fines, as well as allocation of union funds, for the violation of law, and taking measures for ending the closed shop. Finally, in 1984–85, she won a struggle with the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM), who staged a nationwide strike to prevent the closure of 20 coal mines that the government claimed were unproductive. The walkout, which lasted nearly a year and....
  • National Union of Popular Forces (political party, Morocco)
    ...taught mathematics before he entered political life. He joined the Istiqlal Party, becoming speaker of the National Consultative Assembly, and in 1959 left the party to found the left-wing National Union of Popular Forces (UNFP). He was widely considered as a likely president for a possible Republic of Morocco. When Morocco and Algeria had a brief war in 1963, Ben Barka sided with......
  • National Union of Public Employees (British labour organization)
    British labour union, an affiliate of the Trades Union Congress, the national organization of British trade unions. UNISON was created in 1993 through the merger of several unions, including the National Union of Public Employees (formed 1905) and the Confederation of Health Service Employees (formed 1910). It maintains a separate political fund, which supports the activities of the Labour......
  • National Union of South African Students (South African organization)
    ...enrolled in and graduated (1966) from St. Francis College, a liberal boarding school in Natal, and then entered the University of Natal Medical School. There he became involved in the multiracial National Union of South African Students (NUSAS), a moderate organization that had long espoused the rights of blacks. He soon grew disenchanted with NUSAS, believing that, instead of simply allowing.....
  • National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (British organization)
    ...after his short parliamentary career. In 1867 he had been one of the founders, with Mrs. P.A. Taylor, Emily Davies, and others, of the first women’s suffrage society, which developed into the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, and in 1869 he published The Subjection of Women (written 1861), the classical theoretical statement of the case for woman suffrage. His l...
  • National Unionist Party (political party, The Sudan)
    ...he personally remained aloof from politics, Sayyid ʿAlī threw his support to Azharī. The competition between the Azharī-Khatmiyyah faction—remodeled in 1951 as the National Unionist Party (NUP)—and the Ummah-Mahdist group quickly rekindled old suspicions and deep-seated hatreds that soured Sudanese politics for years and eventually strangled parliamenta...
  • National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia (political party, Cambodia)
    The three most important political parties in Cambodia are the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP), the FUNCINPEC Party, and the Sam Rainsy Party. The CPP is a noncommunist party descended from the pro-Vietnam and communist Kampuchean People’s Revolutionary Party. The FUNCINPEC Party is composed of the royalist supporters of the former king Norodom Sihanouk and his son Prince Ranariddh (a...
  • National Unity Committee (Turkish politics)
    From the outset a clear division existed between the officers who carried out the coup. One group, consisting predominantly of younger officers, believed that, to restore national unity and carry out major social and economic reforms, it would be necessary to retain power for an extended period; this group included both those who supported a nationalistic and Islamist policy and those who......
  • national unity government (politics)
    ...the Likud in the 1984 election, but not by a margin sufficient to form a government. To rescue the economy and extricate Israel from its military entanglement in Lebanon, Labour and Likud formed a national unity government in September, giving the premiership to Peres for 25 months, at the end of which the premiership would go to Shamir, with the understanding that the other would take the......
  • National Unity Party (political party, Cyprus)
    ...Among them are the Movement of Social Democrats EDEK (Kinima Sosialdimokraton EDEK) and the Democratic Rally (Dimokratikos Synagermos). In the Turkish Cypriot zone the major parties include the National Unity Party (Ulusal Birlik Partisi), the Communal Liberation Party (Toplumcu Kurtuluș Partisi), and the Republican Turkish Party (Cumhuriyetc̦i Türk Partisi)....
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